The Hidden History of Civilian Internment
In the aftermath of World War I, a little-known chapter of history unfolded in the Northern Adriatic region. As Italy consolidated its control over newly acquired territories, hundreds of civilians found themselves forcibly removed from their homes and interned in remote locations. Among these internees were dozens of women whose stories have largely been forgotten.
This dark episode of post-war repression targeted Slovenian and Croatian civilians living in areas like Venezia Giulia, Rijeka (Fiume), and parts of Dalmatia that came under Italian rule after the collapse of Austria-Hungary. While the internment of men has received some scholarly attention, the experiences of female internees have remained in the shadows – until now.
The Scope of Women’s Internment
Recent research into Italian archives has shed new light on the extent of female internment in the years 1918-1920:
- Approximately 35-45 women were among the estimated 850 civilians interned
- Most were accused of pro-Yugoslav sentiment or anti-Italian activities
- The majority of female internees were teachers
- Women were sent to remote locations in southern Italy, often Sardinia
- Some were held for over a year after the war’s end
While these numbers may seem small, they represent just the tip of the iceberg. For every woman interned, many more faced other forms of repression and displacement in the volatile post-war period.
Targeting Teachers and Intellectuals
The Italian authorities viewed Slovenian and Croatian teachers as particularly dangerous. As educated community leaders, teachers were seen as potential sources of nationalist sentiment and resistance to Italian rule.
Several cases illustrate the targeting of female educators:
- Five teachers from the island of Cres were interned in Sardinia, accused of being “the main and most adamant organizers of the anti-Italian movement”
- Sisters Rosa and Zorka Rusich, teachers from Istria, were arrested for insisting on using Slovenian instead of Italian in their classrooms
- Dinka Rade, a primary school teacher, was accused of “instigating people against Italy” at anti-Italian meetings
The authorities hoped that by removing these influential women, they could weaken pro-Yugoslav sentiment and assert control over the education system. However, the internments often had the opposite effect, creating resentment among local populations.
Conditions of Internment
While detailed accounts are scarce, the available evidence paints a grim picture of life in internment for these women:
- Many were sent to isolated villages in Sardinia
- Living conditions were poor, with inadequate food and shelter
- Several internees contracted malaria and other illnesses
- At least six civilians died during internment
The psychological toll was also severe. Women were cut off from their families and communities, often with no idea when they might be released. The uncertainty and separation caused immense stress for internees and their loved ones alike.
Resistance and Resilience
Despite the harsh conditions, many female internees showed remarkable resilience. Some found ways to continue their political activities even in confinement. For instance, Stefania Goljevic, a teacher interned in Cosenza, was accused of continuing to “incite the population against Italy” from her place of internment.
Other women resisted by refusing to accept their situation passively:
- Some submitted repeated appeals for release, challenging the legality of their detention
- A few managed to escape, like the group of teachers who fled to Zagreb in 1920
- Many maintained their political convictions despite pressure to renounce them
These acts of resistance, however small, demonstrated that the internment policy had failed to break the spirit of these women or erase their sense of identity.
The Wider Impact on Communities
The internment of women reverberated far beyond the individuals directly affected. It was part of a broader campaign of repression that targeted Slovenian and Croatian communities in the newly-annexed territories.
The removal of female community leaders like teachers had several consequences:
- It disrupted education, especially for Slovenian and Croatian-speaking children
- It created a climate of fear and suspicion in many towns and villages
- It fueled resentment against Italian rule, often backfiring against the authorities
Moreover, the absence of interned women placed additional burdens on their families. Mothers, wives, and daughters left behind had to manage households and care for children while also advocating for their loved ones’ release.
A Gendered Perspective on Internment
Examining the internment of women offers a unique lens through which to view this period of history. While the overall treatment of male and female internees was similar, there were some notable differences:
- Women made up a smaller proportion of internees (around 5%)
- Female internees were more likely to be accused of propaganda activities rather than direct political action
- Authorities sometimes viewed women as less of a threat, leading to earlier releases in some cases
However, the fact that women were targeted at all demonstrates how deeply the new Italian administration feared any form of resistance. Gender offered little protection against the machinery of repression.
The Long Shadow of Internment
The effects of these internments lingered long after the women were released. Many found it difficult to return to their former lives:
- Some lost their teaching positions and were barred from working in schools
- Others faced ongoing surveillance and harassment from authorities
- Many chose to leave their hometowns, relocating to Yugoslavia or elsewhere
The experience of internment also left psychological scars that affected families for generations. The trauma of separation, the sense of injustice, and the loss of trust in institutions had lasting impacts on communities in the border regions.
Uncovering Forgotten Stories
For decades, the stories of these interned women remained largely untold. Several factors contributed to this historical silence:
- Official records were often incomplete or deliberately vague
- Many women were reluctant to speak about their experiences after release
- The topic was politically sensitive during the Fascist period and Cold War era
Recent archival research has begun to piece together these forgotten narratives. Historians are now working to give voice to the experiences of women like Antonia Duimovich, Gaspara Purich, and others whose lives were upended by internment.
Lessons for Today
The internment of women in the Northern Adriatic after World War I offers several important lessons:
- The vulnerability of civilian populations in times of political transition
- The use of internment as a tool of state control and repression
- The resilience of individuals and communities in the face of injustice
- The long-term consequences of policies that target ethnic or linguistic minorities
As we grapple with issues of forced displacement and detention in our own time, these historical examples provide valuable perspective. They remind us of the human cost of such policies and the importance of protecting civil liberties, even in times of national security concerns.
Remembering the Interned
As we approach the centenary of these events, it is crucial that we honor the memory of the women who endured internment. Their stories are an essential part of understanding the complex history of the Northern Adriatic region and the aftermath of World War I.
By bringing these experiences to light, we not only pay tribute to those who suffered but also gain valuable insights into the dynamics of power, resistance, and resilience in times of conflict and transition. The internment of women in post-WWI Italy serves as a powerful reminder of the importance of safeguarding human rights and the dangers of unchecked state authority.
